Introduction:
Sigmund Freud, the neurologist and father of psychoanalysis, remains one of psychology’s most impactful figures; his theories continue to shape modern thought. His original name was Sigismund Scholomo Freud, which he changed regarding his difficulty in pronouncing “s” and the explicitness of his Jewish origins. He started his professional life as a doctor of medicine and, later on, a docent in neuropathology, and at last, he found himself chasing the human mind, which led him to develop his psychoanalysis theory. Freud has contributed to many fields, including psychology, literature, theology, neurology, etc. A few concepts can encapsulate his core doctrines such as the unconscious mind, the structural model of the psyche, psychosexual development, drives, and defense mechanisms, as well as the Oedipus complex and dream interpretation. Some people find these concepts controversial, while others define them as the basis of psychology. In this paper, we will examine the fundaments of his theories and principles to comprehend holistically how he has developed them.

Childhood and Family Life:
To look from his glasses, we need to understand his background and by following his doctrines – using his weapon against him – we must dive deep into his childhood to characterize his later acts and to in-ground his doctrines. Sigmund Freud was the first son of a Jewish couple, Jakob Freud and Amalia Nathanson. There was a big age gap between his parents, Amalia was much younger – nearly 20 years – than his husband to whom she was the third wife. From his first marriage, Jakob had two adult sons whose ages are much more close to Amalia’s, by the time Freud was a little kid. Until their move to Vienna, Emanuel and Philipp stayed in the Freud house where repressed sexual desires have given rise to intense incestuous relationships. While father Jakob was on business trips, it’s known that mostly Philipp but also Emanuel was having a relationship with Amalia that the kid Freud has witnessed numerous times. Adult Freud defined his relationship with his mother as a kid as a distant one during which their first intimate contact was on the train while they were moving to Vienna, far from Emanuel and Philip.

When Freud was born, his parents were struggling financially and living in a rented room. He was born with a caul, which is a piece of membrane covering the newborn’s head and face that is observed rarely by a rate of 1 in 80,000. Amalia interpreted this phenomenon as a positive omen for the boy’s future, and this deduction sums up the progress of their relationship. Freud was academically talented and proved to be an outstanding pupil who has always been the apple of his parents’ eye, even though he lacked an intimate relationship emotionally with either of his parents throughout his life. He used to wet his bed in order to draw Amalia’s attention during his childhood. There are a few occasions that have had a continuous effect on Freud and given shape to some of his ideas. One of them is the first memory of Freud alone with her mother on the train that I mentioned before. Besides looking like an ordinary moment of mother-son, Amalia became a provocative sexual figure to Freud considering that she was wearing nothing but only her lingerie during the trip. On the other hand, his nanny was also an agitator for him as she introduced Freud to the church in which Freud witnessed religious rituals for the first time in his life. Freud also stated that his nanny used to wash him in the same bath in which she had washed herself priorly and the

Water was always bloody because of her period or a specific religious ritual but either way it has raised sexual thoughts and stimulation in the young Freud. These two main female figures, who were supposed to be caretakers but have come to the forefront of their sexuality in Freud’s life, made way for the appropriation of a more male-dominated perspective by Freud. As he has never experienced or felt compassion or a maternal approach in his early life, he has dis-graduated the role of women as a sexual object looking up to patriarchal competencies throughout his life. This approach has found a place in his theories and was criticized immensely later on.

Unfortunately, his relationship with Jakob was far from an ideal one either. Freud searched for an inspiring father figure in all his puff, and his father has let him down on this issue, leaving him nothing but disappointed. The incident breaking the image of Jakob for Freud was narrated by Freud vividly. While they were walking in the streets, a man stopped Jakob to insult him because of his Jewishness. Jakob, who remained silent, destroyed the powerful image of a father and the man ended up throwing Jakob’s newly bought hat in the mud and treading it underfoot. Besides his deep commitment to his religion, Freud faced the weakness of his father and felt helpless, and fragile indeed. Because he lacked a strong male role model growing up, he searched for powerful men but got caught in a cycle of deification and hatred toward them.

His success among his siblings also emphasized Freud. As the eldest, he always got apparent attention and importance, leaving his siblings confined to his dominance in the house. Their only entertainment, the piano in the house, was put away to create the perfect environment for Freud to study. He received the only oil lamp, while the others had to use candles. Even though he seemed like the most advantageous, we must also underline the fact that he struggled with the pressure and tried to live up to the expectations of his family all his life. As the eldest male, he has always been in the place of a safer, and responsible for the Freud family.

Freud was so deeply dependent on his mother that he continued to visit Amalia every Sunday morning until her death, despite his expressed hatred for these visits. In his letters and notes, he admitted that every Saturday night filled him with dread—he would tremble and feel the urge to cry, knowing he would see her the next day. She would greet him as if awaiting a lover, dressed in her finest clothes with her hair carefully arranged. Yet, he never missed a single weekend with her, except for the times when he was abroad.

His own family life was also highly problematic. He got married to Martha when they were in their twenties. They had fallen in love at first sight and got engaged discreetly because of Martha’s pretty conservative and prestigious family. Freud, one of the few men to pursue a woman so intensely, wrote thousands of letters to her. These letters reveal his desire for a wife who would dedicate herself solely to him and their children. Martha, despite her high potential and cognitive abilities, has taken the shape of the desired woman figure proportionally to her relationship with Freud. Following their marriage, they had six children in nine years, and this, as it can be estimated, caused financial difficulties. So Freud, who has always tried to handle things on his own without any help which made him feel vulnerable and to create a powerful father figure at which his father failed, refused to use any protection to prevent another pregnancy and chose to cut out ejaculation from his life. This decision hindered his satisfaction sexually and at last, he cut out sexuality completely from his life while entering his 40s. He has always had a fragile and insecure relationship with women in the course of his life because of that. Contemporary psychologists deduce that it may have oriented him to build up his theories mostly based on sexuality. On the other hand, his approach toward his children resembled more of an emperor’s than a father’s. Most of his children suffered from speaking problems such as stuttering or slurring because of the pressure and lack of an understanding and inclusive home that Freud would discover later on. In fact, his daughter Anna has said that the biggest freedom that Freud has given to his children is the one to fear him as much as they want.

Many problems marked Freud’s personal, professional, and family life; however, these key aspects help us precisely frame a portrait of Sigmund Freud, one of history’s most discussed figures. Even from these few examples, we can see clearly that he got lost in the desperateness from which he put forward his best works. Freud, himself, described this as “creative melancholy”. It stands for the ability to produce and create in the presence of melancholic situations. From my point of view, he aimed to analyze and heal himself rather than his patients, that also his self-analyze practices reveal. In the following sections, I will dissect his theories based on his life, trying to dive into the core layer by layer.

His Core Doctrines:
1. The Unconscious Mind

In 1885-86, Freud went to the world capital, Paris, which was a milestone for him. He worked with Charcot as an assistant psychologist and during the visits with Charcot; he saw for the first time that men could also suffer from hysteria and started to worry about his future. We can define this as the beginning of his melancholy. At the end of his experiences in Paris, he passed to psychiatry incontrovertibly and centered his thought system on getting rid of the pressures and norms brought by society and becoming liberated. Later on, he participated in the process of treatment of a patient of Breuer, whose name is Bertha Pappenheim. Her story became a milestone in psychoanalysis as she was the first woman patient of the field and her treatment has led to the concept of the unconscious. Bertha was a healthy, intelligent woman with an active imagination until her father contracted tuberculosis. After the diagnosis, Bertha devoted herself to caring for her father, but even after her father had died, Bertha suffered from various symptoms including paralysis, involuntary eye movements, hydrophobia – an aversion to food and water-, lethargy, and language difficulties. She began to speak in mendacious languages or by mixing a couple of them. As her situation got worse, she consulted Breuer, an Austrian physician. Considering that her symptoms didn’t have any organic basis, she was diagnosed with hysteria, which has led to treatment practices using hypnosis and talking therapy. As a result of therapy sessions during which Breuer demanded Bertha to tell what she had in mind, Breuer noticed repressed past events and memories were revealing themselves in different forms, seeming like symptoms. For example, in one session, Bertha narrated a trauma of hers about water that Breuer associated with her aversion to water in the current situation. Although Freud has never interacted with Bertha directly, he followed the progress of her treatment in detail and developed the three-state consciousness. He proposed that our mind is a multi-dimensional structure, based on three states. The first, the conscious mind comprises everything we are aware of in the meantime: our emotional state, our thoughts, current memories, wishes, etc. It’s the component that we can talk about rationally. The second, the preconscious mind, is built up on every memory, every reaction, and every feeling that lay underneath our consciousness and could arise, can be potentially brought to our conscious mind. The last one is the unconscious mind, which functions as a reservoir of feelings, thoughts, urges, and memories that remain outside of our awareness. Mostly, they are repressed feelings and memories that contain unacceptable or unpleasant aspects such as fear, anxiety, or pain. Freud explained Bertha’s case by these definitions: he thought that Bertha had repressed sexual fantasies about her father, of which she became aware while her father was ill and they appalled her. As she couldn’t face them, she ended up getting ill herself. Breuer offered a different explanation of the situation: a part of Bertha’s mind had died with his father but her body was stuck in between the dead and the alive part of her mind which the dead one was accusing because of her father’s death. This conflict has raised many problems within her including behavioral as well as psychological. Even though their ways got apart, their propositions and theories remain still. The talking therapy practice evolved to free association later on as they idealized the treatment process. Free association is based on making someone say the first things that pop up in his/her mind and then making deductions and predictions about his/her mental state and unconscious mind. An example of the application of this method is given in a book of Freud’s. He has written that when he was traveling on a train he came across a young man who seemed upset and they started talking. As their conversation proceeded Freud asked him to tell random things that came into his mind, he listed a couple of words and stories about liquefaction. After Freud conveyed the incident, he indicated his point of view by bridging the dots and arriving at the conclusion that his girlfriend had missed her period and he was waiting for the news of bleeding. Later on, it is suspected that there wasn’t such a young man on the train because Freud was traveling with his sister-in-law, Nina, who became an important figure and a rival to Martha, later in his life. So it was Freud who was afraid of the possibility of Nina’s pregnancy and was waiting for bleeding but he conveyed it by using an imaginary figure. His disciples got ahead of him, using his methodology on him to detect his faults.

2. Dream Interpretation
Freud reclaimed that all dreams were a kind of “wish fulfillment” as he defined it. And actually, he developed this theory on a dream of his own. He had a patient named Irma who hadn’t been showing improvement as he wished. He was worried about her condition and blamed himself because of the delay in the outcomes of her treatment. One day, he dreamt that he met Irma at a party and examined her. Then a chemical formula flashed before his eyes; later on, he realized that it belonged to a drug that another doctor had given to Irma. He deduced that it wasn’t his fault but the other doctor’s that Irma hadn’t been seeing results. The syringe which the doctor had used was dirty and made Irma’s situation worse. Freud interpreted his dream as wish fulfillment. He has been wishing that Irma’s condition was connected with anything but him. So his dream fulfilled this wish. Wish fulfillment stands for the satisfaction of a desire through an unconscious thought process. It can occur in everyday affairs such as daydreaming as well as neurotic symptoms like neurosis and hallucinations. He proposed that dreams are formed as the result of two mental processes. The first includes unconscious forces that build up a wish to be expressed by the dream, while the second corresponds to the process of censorship which forcibly prevents the expression of the wish. These dreams are often indirect and require to be inspected by a professional to be correctly interpreted. Freud took the theory much further by reclaiming that a professional analyst can differentiate the manifest content from the latent content of the dream. So, if correctly interpreted, dreams could provide valuable insight into an individual’s unconscious desires and conflicts. The manifest content stands for the narrative that plays out, briefly, it refers to what is remembered after the dream. On the other hand, the latent content is the underlying signification. Freud suggested that every dream has a relation with the experience of the previous day, regardless of how minor or major it can be. As its content could be connected with any part of the dreamer’s life, the analyst should be careful during the interpretation.

“He cited four main sources of dreams:

• important events or thoughts from waking life that appear in dreams exactly as theyhappened or in a very similar form
  Example: If you had an intense argument with a friend, you might dream about the same argument, with little change.
•  multiple experiences from real life that are merged into one
  Example: If you recently had a stressful exam and also watched a movie about detectives, you might dream about solving a mystery in an exam setting.
• a recent and meaningful event is included in the dream, but instead of being represented directly, it is disguised by associating it with something unimportant that happened at the same time
  Example: If you had a stressful job interview, but also saw a stray cat that same day, your dream might focus on the cat rather than the interview—yet the real emotional meaning comes from the interview.
•  a deeper, internal thought or concern is hidden in the dream by being connected to something recent but seemingly insignificant (a random memory, thought, or impression)
  Example: If you’ve been struggling with self-doubt for weeks, your dream might focus on a meaningless conversation you had yesterday—but in reality, it symbolizes your deeper internal struggle.”

3. The Psychosexual Development Theory
Freud observed that in particular stages of early childhood, the kid’s comportment tends towards certain parts of his/her body. During breastfeeding, a child’s attention and behavior are focused on the mouth, whereas during toilet training, they shift to the anus. So Freud proposed the psychosexual development theory that explains personality development in a five-stage process; the stages are marked by the fixation of libido on specific parts of the body. In case of nonsatisfaction or conflict in any stage of psychosexual development, neurosis, a kind of functional mental disorder, can be encountered in adulthood. Freud disclaimed that humankind is “polymorphous perverse” at the moment of tier birth. This refers to the non-specific sexuality in childhood; more clearly, it stands for the ability to channel infantile sexuality into specific aims and objects. According to Freud, this ability weakens proportionally to growth, and yet, sexual energy, also named libido, is being shaped in the processes of socialization and psychosexual development, gaining more fixed mature forms.

While pursuing their sexual drive – libido – the child may encounter failure, mostly caused by parental and societal disapproval, and may associate anxiety with the target zone. The urge to avoid anxiety leads the child to become fixated, which means preoccupied with the psychological aspects related to the erogenous zone in question. The fixation carries on in adulthood and underlies the psychological situation of the individual.

● Oral Stage: The Oral Stage is the first stage of Freud’s psychosexual development theory, generally occurring from birth until approximately 18 months. In this stage, a baby’s libido is focused on the mouth, the baby derives intensive satisfaction from engaging in oral activities like sucking, biting breastfeeding, or chewing. Freud stated the oral stage is one of the most significant phases of personality development. For example, he suggested that an underfed child could show pessimistic, envious, and suspicious behaviors in adulthood while an overfed child might develop an optimistic, gullible character. Freud also associated oral behaviors with specific personality types in adulthood. For instance, a person fixated on the oral stage tends to engage in oral behaviors that symbolize the continued fulfillment of oral needs, such as excessive eating, smoking, nail-biting, or thumb-sucking. Oral personalities are more likely to engage in these behaviors, particularly when under stress.

•  Anal Stage: The anal stage happens between the ages of 18 months and three years. During this stage, the focus is on the anus and the child derives great pleasure from activities like defecating and learns to control and release the bowel. Freud believed that this type of conflict – controlling/releasing – is likely to come to a head during potty training, in which the child gets strict restrictions from adults, who are the authorities, on such things as when and where he/she can defecate. The nature of this first conflict defines the child’s relationship with all kinds of authorities later on. The fixations in this stage emerge as problems related to cleanliness and the need for control in adulthood. Early or harsh potty training can give rise to an anal-retentive personality who hates mess, is obsessively tidy, and is respectful of authority. They can be stubborn and tightfisted with their possessions. On the other hand, someone who has undergone liberal potty training may develop an anal-expulsive personality that is characterized by an extreme tendency to share, messiness and rebellious behavior.
•  Phallic Stage: This third stage spans ages three to six and is marked by the shift of libido to the genitals as the primary source of pleasure. Children become gradually aware of their bodies, showing high interest in their genitals as well as those of the opposite sex. In addition, their comprehension of anatomical and emotional sex differences starts to form, which can bring about erotic attraction, rivalry, jealousy, resentment, and fear, mostly towards their parent of the same gender. They explore the concept of “woman” and “man” and undergo a stage of rivalry with the desire to replace their parent (of the same gender) while “falling in love” with the parent of the opposite gender. The child finishes this stage healthily if he/she can comprehend the roles of two genders with the model of his/her parents and traces a pathway based on their lead in a bid to become the desired partner of his/her first love, briefly, the child ends up idealizing and trying to become his/her predecessor, the parent of the same gender. Unresolved conflicts that are encountered in this stage could potentially cause major future issues, such as sexual dysfunction, problems with gender identity, or struggle to form relationships. Phallic fixations could create overly vain, exhibitionistic, and sexually aggressive individuals in adulthood. Particularly in men, it can emerge anxiety about sexual performance, the need for reassurance and validation, or a tendency to be overly assertive or aggressive. In women, it could lead to a desire to dominate men, a rivalry with other women, or the need for male attention or approval.
•  Latency Stage: During the fourth stage of psychosexual development, spanning six years to puberty, the libido is dormant and isn’t focused on a particular zone. As “latent” means “hidden”, this stage is proposed as a duration of repression of the sexual drive, creating a relatively calm period. The child focuses mainly on other pursuits, such as education, social relationships, and other skills for successful adult life. Social and intellectual skills take precedence over sexual or romantic interests; much of the child’s energy is channeled into developing new skills and acquiring knowledge. Play becomes largely confined to other members of the same gender. Fixations occurring in this stage could cause difficulty in expressing emotions or forming healthy relationships in adulthood. For instance, if a child fails to make strong connections – perhaps struggles to make friends or fit in with peers – or falls behind academically perhaps struggling with reading, writing, or math skills – especially in the early periods of this stage, he/she may deal with feelings of inadequacy, insecurity, and social isolation later on. This stage comes to an end with the reoccurring of sexual urges in puberty.

● Genital Stage: This is the fifth and final phase of Freud’s psychosexual development theory, beginning at puberty and lasting into adulthood. During this stage, the libido re-emerges after latency and is oriented towards peers of the opposite sex, determining the onset of mature adult sexuality. This period marks the formation of intimate relationships as individuals start to explore their sexual feelings and desires in a more mature and responsible way. Sexual instinct is focused on genitals as in the phallic stage but is directed to heterosexual pleasure this time rather than to self-pleasure. Individuals are likely to experience ups and downs regarding their emotional state as they navigate new feelings and relationships. It isn’t just about sexuality, but also about the formation of meaningful emotional bonds with others. According to Freud, if individuals have unresolved issues during this stage, they may end up with sexual dysfunction, difficulty in forming healthy relationships, or other emotional problems.

Stage	Age Range	Erogenous zone	Consequences of psychologic fixation
Oral	Birth–1 year	Mouth	Orally aggressive: chewing gum and the ends of pencils, etc.Orally passive: smoking, eating, kissing, oral sexual practices[4]Oral stage fixation might result in a passive, gullible, immature, manipulative personality.
Anal	1–3 years	Bowel	Anal retentive: Obsessively organized, or excessively neatAnal expulsive: reckless, careless, defiant, disorganized, coprophiliac

Phallic	3–6 years	Genitalia	Oedipus complex (in boys and girls); according to Sigmund Freud.Electra complex (in girls); according to Carl Jung. Promiscuity and low self-esteem in both sexes.
Latenc y	6–pubert y	Dormant sexual feelings	Immaturity and an inability to form fulfilling non-sexual relationships as an adult if fixation occurs in this stage.
Genital	Puberty– death	Sexual interests mature	Frigidity, impotence, sexual perversion, great difficulty in forming a healthy sexual relationship with another person

*Freudian Psychosexual Development Table from Wikipedia

4. The Oedipus Complex
In fact, the Oedipus Complex is highly related to Freud’s theory of psychosexual development. It captures the phallic phase as the child begins to discover sexuality based on his/her parents, but considering that it’s one of the main and most disgusted theories of Freud, I wanted to write it separately under the headline of its own. Oedipus refers to a fifth century Greek mythological figure who kills his father and marries his mother unknowingly. A play based on the ancient Greek myth has been written by Sophocles. In the 19th century, modern versions of this play of Sophocles, Oedipus Rex, were being reproduced and were significantly successful indeed, especially in Paris and Vienna. Freud, after attending to one of these plays, interpreted the absence of denial on Oedipus’ part after learning that he’s killed his father and married his mother as a consequence of unconscious sexual attitude towards the mother along with the hostility towards the father. His ideas of castration anxiety – the fear of damage to, or loss of, the penis – and penis envy – the anxiety experienced by young girls upon realizing that they don’t have a penis – define the differences between sexes in their experience of Oedipus Complex. According to Freud, the Oedipal sentiment has been inherited through the long ages of evolution, from apes to the humankind, and occurs in two different ways: the positive Oedipus Complex refers to the sexual desire for the opposite-sex parent and aversion to the same-sex parent while the negative Oedipus Complex stands for the reverse. Freud stated that the child’s identification with the same-sex parent is the acceptable outcome of the complex while neurosis can be encountered in case of failure to move on from the compulsion to satisfy the sexual attitude and to reconcile with the “hostile” figure which is determined as the unwanted result of the Oedipus Complex at the end of an unhealthy developmental process. He proposed that the Oedipal desire and tendency is a universal phenomenon that comes along with unconscious guilt. As he developed this theory, he hesitated to write his resurfacing childhood memories of the desire to kill his father and to land up with his mother – as written in the previous parts, Freud’s relationship with his mother was constructed on a sexual basis it caused the Oedipus Complex to be one of the most important turning points in Freud’s life – but under the effect of mythology and Goethe -who quoted “First and last, what is demanded of genius is love of truth.”- he decided to write. Opposing numerous criticisms and accusations, including the frame of being a pervert, Freud entered a horrible phase of melancholy and “intellectual paralysis” as he labeled it, which means the inability to produce against the multitude of information. He mentioned that his superego dominated his ego and prevented him from writing his thoughts, considering the outcomes he may come across. And by the contemporary psychologist, the connection between the myth and his theory is interpreted as a way out for Freud in order to not take all the responsibility for his idea by attributing it to another source but this connection is fragile that Oedipus is unaware of his family bonds during the assassin and the marriage. Before this theory, he associated neurosis with sexual trauma faced in childhood, also called the seduction theory, but this judgment has been deemphasized after the assertion of the Oedipus Complex.

Freud has also examined the Oedipus Complex under different forms, in psychology, literature, sociology, etc. “The Brothers Karamazov” by Dostoyevsky was a reference guide and the masterpiece of world literature for Freud. While reading the book, Feud is said to look into the eyes of Dostoyevsky rather than at the novel. He thought that Dostoyevsky had a great joy writing the novel because he succeeded in passing on the desire and inevitable urge to kill the father who is an appendage of God to all four sons and made them plan the murder of their father. He concluded that Dostoyevsky experienced complex, conflicting emotions, as he harbored a subconscious desire to kill his father, yet his father was killed by someone else. He detected that in the court scene in the novel, the murderer was found clearly “right”, reflecting the point of view of Dostoyevsky. Freud cited three books as indispensable works of literature: The Brothers Karamazov by Dostoyevsky, The King Oedipus by Sophocles, and Hamlet by Shakespeare. Examined in detail, all his choices reveal overtones leading us to his theories and tracing a pathway towards the depth of psychoanalysis that knits our life stitch by stitch without us noticing. For instance, Hamlet also presents a scenario where the protagonist, Hamlet, has been grappling with a deep desire to kill his father and, as a result, continually delays seeking revenge on his uncle, who murdered his father. On the other hand, we can also come across some examples of passive forms of the Oedipus Complex throughout history and literature, other than its obvious reflections as explained until now. Kafka, highly affected by Freud’s works, wrote his autobiographic story intending to be freed of his personality and, more precisely, from the shadow of his father, The Trial. He was in such an intense study that he finished his story without any break, in 8-10 hours. Critics interpret the satisfaction of the young man in his story when he was attending suicide as related to his relationship with his father in terms of the passive Oedipus Complex, also a passive homosexual interaction. The main character feels pleasure as he realizes his father’s judgments. This assertion also captures the complete dedication of millions of people to Hitler, neglecting their individualism and directing and channeling their libido to a greater dominant figure, nearly with a sexual attitude. Briefly, the Oedipus Complex seems to be a complex concept, as its name demonstrates, and which shows up in different forms and degrees, necessitating a multi-dimensional approach.

5. The Structural Model: Id, Ego, and Superego
According to Freud, the human mind consists of different layers, which he illustrated through the metaphor of an iceberg, associating each part with a distinct component of our psyche. Freud labeled the top of the iceberg, the thin layer above the water, as the conscious mind that consists of everything we are currently thinking and aware of, such as our thoughts, our memories, our desires, or even our emotions and feelings. On the other hand, below the surface, there is our unconscious mind, like the big part of the iceberg hiding under the water on which it settles without us knowing by looking from the outside. So our unconscious mind shapes our behavior and controls our actions, yet we have no conscious awareness of it. Freud argued that we develop a defense mechanism called “repression” through which we push down or block out – unconsciously for sure -unpleasant things that happen in our lives, such as intrusive thoughts, traumatic memories, taboo desires, or intense emotions like hate or rage. As they are too painful to think about, all these traumatic incidents are repressed and hidden in our unconscious. So Freud proposed the “id, ego and superego” which he defined as the main forces that navigate our minds. The “id” is entirely in our unconscious mind while the ego and the superego flow in between our conscious and unconscious. In addition, we are born with the id and it is driven by primal drives. Primal drives refer to thirst, hunger, and sexual attraction, briefly, they are animalistic instincts. Freud divided these drives into two: the life drive and the death drive. He called them “Eros” and “Thanatos”, respectively. Life drive consists of cooperation and collaboration, of which the main aim is to ensure health, safety, and reproduction. On the other hand, death drive is associated with feelings of fear, anger – inward or outward – and hate that lead to (self-)destructive or harmful behavior. Freud defined them as intrinsic and universal bases of our components. He also stated that the id is driven by the “pleasure principle” which refers to the desire for immediate gratification while avoiding suffering. Freud would call “the libido” (Latin for desire) the force and the fuel that guides our id. (Libido is mostly used for expressing sexual attitudes and energy, even in this paper as until now we’ve talked about theories based on sexual aspects but Freud didn’t use this term just to represent sexuality but to comprise the motives and urges of an individual.)

Freud has never used the terms id, ego, and superego. He spoke German and all these terms were translations of his denominations. The original expression used for id in German is the equivalent of “it” which meets the signification better as the id is innate and regardless of any exclusive factor, or gender.

Secondly, the ego is translated to “ich” which means “I”. It stands for the self, for the decisions that we make, etc. It balances the id by satisfying its needs in rational and acceptable conditions. The ego takes reality into account, which we refer to as the “reality principle”. It is marked by delayed gratification and mature actions. The ego bridges the urges to the responsibilities. From now on, social norms, laws, and society’s expectations enter the equation, and the ego is the moderator between the superego and the id. To illustrate the role of the ego, it’s beneficial to use the analogy of a horse and rider, where the ego acts as the rider, guiding the horse—representing the id. So, the ego acts within the frame of societal constraints whilst keeping the id satisfied up to a degree. If it can’t control the id, defense mechanisms begin to emerge to keep the individual “in order”. Sometimes the needs and desires of the repressed id resurface in different forms, such as dreams or slips of the tongue. I’m gonna talk about the most common defense mechanisms in the next part.

By the time a child is about five years old, the final component starts to develop, the superego, or “Uber-ich” in German, which means “over-I”, still a better denomination. The superego is the judge in our minds, it’s our moral compass. It determines the right and the wrong, the morality of an individual. The superego is responsible for assuring that an individual lives up to societal standards. Eventually, the superego leads to the internalization of the voice of authority figures (parents, teachers, anybody who could judge the individual). As a result of the superego, we develop an “ideal self” – the imaginary angel, the virtuous person who fulfills every desired feature by society – that is impossible and illogical to achieve. So it’s not the person you are, but the person you ought to be. Such feelings like shame or guilt are also based on the dominance of the superego, if the superego prevails among others, the individual will always feel that he/she is not good enough and will be filled with shame and guilt throughout his/her life, which will prevent any pleasurable act.

In conclusion, as all three are indispensable for our minds, balancing them is necessary for a healthy life.

6. Defense Mechanisms
“In psychoanalytic theory, defense mechanisms are unconscious processes that protect the self from anxiety-producing thoughts and feeling related to internal conflicts and external stressors.”(definition by Wikipedia) This theory states that healthy people use various defense mechanisms throughout life, but if a defense mechanism develops maladaptive behavior that the individual is adversely affected, it can become pathological. The fundamental aim of these processes is to protect the mind/self/ego from anxiety-provoking situations or even to provide a way out from a situation with which the individual can’t cope. The first definitive book on defense mechanisms is The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defense(1936) which is written by Anna Freud, Freud’s daughter, who enumerated ten defense mechanisms that occur in her father’s works.

Sigmund Freud admitted that defense mechanisms are based on distorting id impulses into acceptable forms, or on the blockage – conscious or unconscious – of these impulses. On the other hand, Anna Freud introduced defense mechanisms as intellectual or motor automatisms of various degrees of complexity which arose during learning processes.

The ten primary defense mechanisms consist of: (Following definitions are a combination of definitions by Verywell Mind, Wikipedia, The American Psychological Association and Agents of Change Social Work)

•  Repression: the unconscious blocking of unpleasant emotions, impulses, memories, and thought from your conscious mind with the aim of minimizing feelings of guilt and anxiety
  Example: Forgetting a traumatic childhood experience
•  Regression: a psychological defense mechanism in which an individual copes with stressful or anxiety-provoking relationships or situations by retreating to an earlier developmental stage, regression comes in sight as immature or inappropriate behaviour for someone’s ageExample: An adult throwing a tantrum when things don’t go their way
•  Reaction Formation: a defense mechanism in which a person unconsciously replaces an unwanted or anxiety-provoking impulse with its opposite, often seen in an exaggerated or showy way
  Example: Displaying excessive kindness to someone you deeply dislike
•  Denial: a defense mechanism that involves ignoring of the reality of a situation in order to avoid anxiety, denial can occur by not acknowledging the reality itself, or its consequences
  Example: Insisting you are not addicted to smoking despite clear health issues
•  Undoing: a defense mechanism in which a person tries to cancel out or remove en unhealthy, destructive or otherwise threatening thought or action by engaging in contrary behavior
  Example: Being overly nice to someone after having negative thoughts about them
•  Projection: a defense mechanism that involves attributing one’s undesirable traits, feelings, or impulses to other people
  Example: Accusing someone of being angry with you when you are the one feeling angry
•  Introjection: a psychological phenomenon where an individual unconsciously incorporates attributes, attitudes, or behaviours of others into their own personality and self structure
  Example: A child adopting a parent’s values to avoid conflict
•  Sublimation: a defense mechanism in which unacceptable sexual or aggressive drives are unconsciously channeled into socially acceptable modes of expression and redirected into new, learned behaviors, which indirectly provide some satisfaction for the original drivesExample: Channeling aggressive tendencies into playing competitive sports

•  Displacement: a psychological defense mechanism in which a person redirects a negative emotion from its original source to a less threatening recipient, displaced aggression is one of the most common examples
  Example: Yelling at a friend because you are angry at your boss
•  Rationalization: a defense mechanism in which people utilize unconscious strategies to protect themselves from anxiety or threats to self-esteem by justifying behaviors, thoughts, or feelings using logical explanations; this act reduces discomfort, often by denying or distorting realityExample: Justifying cheating on a test by saying, “Everyone else was doing it.”These are the primary defense mechanisms detected by Freud in his works. Initially, Freud introduced the concept of defense mechanisms, mainly focusing on “repression”. Later on, his daughter Anna expanded and organized her father’s concepts in her book and she identified specific defense mechanisms by highlighting their role in child development and personality formation. Unlike her father, she examined these mechanisms at both normal and abnormal levels. Psychologists increasingly proposed and analyzed different defense mechanisms, and over time, this theory became a cornerstone of psychological processes. New categorizations and definitions, such as Vaillant’s “Hierarchy” model classifying defense mechanisms by maturity level (pathological, immature, neurotic, and mature), were developed. In modern psychology, defense mechanisms are generally integrated with coping strategies and distortions. Modern psychologists and researchers benefit from neuroimaging in order to associate different brain regions with emotional regulation processes, capturing these mechanisms which are also linked to traits like neuroticism, openness and resilience by some recent researches.

Conclusion:

Sigmund Freud made a lasting impact on modern psychology through theories such as the unconscious mind, defense mechanisms, and the importance of childhood experiences. For example, many therapists today still help patients explore repressed emotions and unresolved conflicts from their past to understand their present behavior. Freud’s idea that early life experiences shape personality remains widely accepted.

However, several of Freud’s theories have been heavily criticized or deemed outdated. One of the most controversial is the Oedipus complex, which suggests that children experience unconscious sexual desires for their opposite-sex parent. Critics argue this theory is culturally biased, overly focused on sexuality, and unsupported by scientific evidence. Additionally, Freud’s psychosexual stages of development, which claim that personality develops through stages centered on erogenous zones, are considered outdated for oversimplifying human growth.

Freud’s methods have also drawn criticism. His reliance on dream analysis and free association has been called unscientific because it lacks empirical support and is difficult to test. Modern therapies, such as Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT), have gained popularity for their evidence-based approaches to treating mental health issues. Freud’s emphasis on the unconscious mind, however, has influenced newer therapies like psychodynamic therapy, which combines his insights with modern scientific methods.

Despite these criticisms, Freud’s influence extends beyond psychology into popular culture and everyday life. Terms like “denial” and “projection,” which are examples of his defense mechanisms, are used widely in conversations to describe behavior patterns. The concept of Freudian slips, where someone accidentally says something revealing their subconscious thoughts, is still referenced in media, literature, and comedy.

In conclusion, while many of Freud’s theories are outdated or controversial, his contributions remain central to the history of psychology. His work sparked discussions about the human mind, emotions, and behavior that continue to shape modern therapy and self-understanding. Freud’s legacy reminds us that exploring the deeper parts of our minds can help us grow, heal, and understand human behavior on a profound level.

Bibliography:

•  Academic Journals (https://academicjournals.org/)
•  Spark Notes (https://www.sparknotes.com/)
•  Verywell Mind (https://www.verywellmind.com/)
•  Psychologist World (https://www.psychologistworld.com/)
•  Wikipedia (https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/)
•  Simply Psychology (https://www.simplypsychology.org/)
•  The podcast “Didik Didik Freud” by Şenol Ayla and Serol Teber
•  “The Enduring Influence of Freud and Salinger”(https://medium.com/ginervasgarden/the-enduring-influence-of-freud-and-salinger-ex ploring-the-human-psyche-in-the-catcher-and-the-97b9954968f)
•  “Sigmund Freud’s Id, Ego, and Superego / Personality Structure” – Psych Explained (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_P7RJ7v7Oqg)
•  “Young Freud” – Fildişi Kule (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h3X1FN6aB8g)
•  Khan Academy